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using his natural and unprejudiced judgment draws respecting the matters 

of   his   experience。     And   because   we   have   all   to   pass   through   a   state   of 

infancy   to   manhood�察  �and   have   been   of   necessity�察  �for   a   length   of   time�察�

governed   by   our   desires   and   preceptors   ��whose   dictates   were   frequently 

conflicting�察  �while   neither   perhaps   always   counseled   us   for   the   best���察  �I 

farther concluded that it is almost impossible that our judgments can be so 

correct or solid as they would have been�察�had our reason been mature from 

the moment of our birth�察�and had we always been guided by it alone。 

     It is true�察�however�察�that it is not customary to pull down all the houses 

of   a   town    with   the   single   design    of   rebuilding    them     differently�察  �and 

thereby rendering the streets more handsome�察�but it often happens that a 

private individual takes down his own with the view of erecting it anew�察�

and that people are even sometimes constrained to this when their houses 

are in   danger of  falling from  age�察 �or when the foundations   are  insecure。 

With   this   before   me   by   way   of   example�察  �I   was   persuaded   that   it   would 

indeed   be   preposterous   for   a   private   individual   to   think   of   reforming   a 

state by fundamentally changing it throughout�察�and overturning it in order 

to   set   it   up   amended�察  �and   the   same   I   thought   was   true   of   any   similar 

project   for   reforming   the   body   of   the   sciences�察  �or   the   order   of   teaching 

them established in the schools�此            �but as for the opinions which up to that 



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time I had embraced�察�I thought that I could not do better than resolve at 

once to sweep them wholly away�察�that I might afterwards be in a position 

to admit either others more correct�察�or even perhaps the same when they 

had undergone the scrutiny of reason。             I firmly believed that in this way I 

should much better succeed in the conduct of my life�察�than if I built only 

upon old   foundations�察�and leaned   upon principles   which�察 �in my  youth�察 �I 

had   taken   upon   trust。    For   although   I   recognized   various   difficulties   in 

this undertaking�察�these were not�察�however�察�without remedy�察�nor once to be 

pared   with such   as  attend   the  slightest   reformation   in   public   affairs。 

Large bodies�察�if once overthrown�察�are with great difficulty set up again�察�or 

even kept erect when once seriously shaken�察�and the fall of such is always 

disastrous。      Then   if   there   are   any   imperfections   in   the   constitutions   of 

states   ��and   that   many   such   exist   the   diversity   of   constitutions   is   alone 

sufficient   to   assure   us���察  �custom   has   without   doubt   materially   smoothed 

their inconveniences�察�and has even managed to steer altogether clear of�察�or 

insensibly   corrected   a   number   which   sagacity   could   not   have   provided 

against with equal effect�察�and�察�in fine�察�the defects are almost always more 

tolerable than the change necessary for their removal�察�in the same manner 

that highways which wind among mountains�察�by being much frequented�察�

bee   gradually   so   smooth   and   modious�察  �that   it   is   much   better   to 

follow   them   than   to   seek   a  straighter   path   by   climbing   over   the   tops   of 

rocks and descending to the bottoms of precipices。 

     Hence it is that I cannot in any degree approve of those restless and 

busy meddlers who�察�called neither by birth nor fortune to take part in the 

management of public affairs�察�are yet always projecting reforms�察�and if I 

thought that this   tract   contained   aught which   might   justify  the   suspicion 

that   I  was    a  victim    of  such    folly�察 �I  would    by   no   means     permit    its 

publication。       I    have    never    contemplated       anything     higher    than    the 

reformation of my own opinions�察�and basing them on a foundation wholly 

my own。       And although my own satisfaction with my work has led me to 

present here a draft of it�察�I do not by any means therefore remend to 

every one else to make a similar attempt。             Those whom God has endowed 

with a larger measure of genius will entertain�察�perhaps�察�designs still more 

exalted�察    �but   for  the   many     I  am    much     afraid   lest  even    the   present 



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undertaking be more than they can safely venture to imitate。                    The single 

design to strip one's self of all past beliefs is one that ought not to be taken 

by every one。 The majority of men is posed of two classes�察�for neither 

of which would this be at all a befitting resolution�此              �in the first place�察�of 

those   who   with   more   than   a   due   confidence   in   their   own   powers�察  �are 

precipitate in their judgments and want the patience requisite for orderly 

and circumspect thinking�察�whence it happens�察�that if men of this class once 

take the liberty to doubt of their accustomed opinions�察�and quit the beaten 

highway�察�they will never be able to thread the byway that would lead them 

by a shorter course�察�and will lose themselves and continue to wander for 

life�察  �in   the   second   place�察  �of   those   who�察  �possessed   of   sufficient   sense   or 

modesty to determine that there are others who excel them in the power of 

discriminating       between     truth   and   error�察  �and   by   whom      they   may    be 

instructed�察  �ought   rather   to   content   themselves   with   the   opinions   of   such 

than trust for more correct to their own reason。 

     For my own part�察�I should doubtless have belonged to the latter class�察�

had I received instruction from but one master�察�or had I never known the 

diversities   of   opinion   that   from  time   immemorial   have   prevailed   among 

men of the greatest learning。           But I had bee aware�察�even so early as 

during   my   college   life�察  �that   no   opinion�察  �however   absurd   and   incredible�察�

can    be   imagined�察   �which     has  not   been   maintained      by   some   on   of  the 

philosophers�察�and afterwards in the course of my travels I remarked that 

all those  whose opinions are decidedly  repugnant to ours are  not in that 

account   barbarians   and   savages�察  �but   on   the   contrary   that   many   of   these 

nations make an equally good�察�if not better�察�use of their reason than we do。 

I   took   into  account     also  the   very   different   character    which     a  person 

brought up from infancy in France or Germany exhibits�察�from that which�察�

with the same mind originally�察�this individual would have possessed had 

he lived always among the Chinese or with savages�察�and the circumstance 

that in dress itself the fashion which pleased us ten years ago�察�and which 

may   again�察  �perhaps�察  �be   received   into   favor   before   ten   years   have   gone�察�

appears to us at this moment extravagant and ridiculous。                   I was thus led 

to infer that the ground of our opinions is far more custom and example 

than any certain knowledge。           And�察�finally�察�although such be the ground of 



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our   opinions�察  �I   remarked   that   a  plurality  of   suffrages   is   no   guarantee   of 

truth where it is at   a

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